Patterns in Classical China - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1117 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/09/24 Category Advertising Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Tags: Government Essay Did you like this example? Compare and Contrast September 23, 2010, Compare and Contrast Patterns in Classical China. Three dynastic cycles—the Zhou, the Qin, and the Han—covered many centuries of classical China. The dynastic patterns begun in classical Chinese history lasted until the early part of the twentieth century. A family of kings called a â€Å"dynasty,† began ruling China with great vigor, developing solid political institutions, and encouraging active economies. Each dynasty over time grew weaker, tax revenues declined, and social divisions occurred as the population outstripped available resources. In addition, internal rebellions and sometimes invasions from the outside contributed to each dynasty’s decline. As the ruling dynasty began to falter, usually another one arose from the family of a successful general, invader, or peasant and the pattern started anew. The Zhou dynasty (1029-258 B. C. E. ) expanded the territorial boundaries of China by seizing the Yangtze River valley. The territory from the Yangtze to the Huang is often called the â€Å"Middle Kingdom,† blessed with rich cropland. They promoted Mandarin as the standard language. The Zhou did not establish a strong central government but ruled instead through alliances with regional princes and noble families. This led to vulnerabilities that plagued the Zhou: the regional princes solidified their power and disregarded the central government. When the Zhou began to fail, philosophers sought to explain the political confusion. One of these, Confucius, became one of the most important thinkers in Chinese history. His orderly social and political philosophy became an important doctrine of the Qin and Han dynasties. The next dynasty, the Qin, (221-202 B. C. E. ) was begun by the brutal but effective emperor Shi Huangdi. He consolidated his power, built the Great Wall, conducted a census, standardized weights and measures, and extended the borders of his realm to Hon g Kong and northern Vietnam. Upon his death, massive revolts broke out and by 202 B. C. E. , the Han dynasty (202 B. C. E. -220 C. E. ) was established. The Han rulers lessened the brutality of the Qin but maintained its centralized rule. Early Han leaders, like Wu Ti, expanded Chinese territory and set up formal training, based on Confucian philosophy, or bureaucrats. During a long decline, the Han faced invasions and eventually fell to outside forces, especially the Huns. By the sixth century C. E. , the Han too collapsed, but not before they had established distinctive political and cultural values that lasted into the twentieth century. Political Institutions. Throughout the Qin and Han periods, the Chinese state bureaucracy expanded its powers significantly. By the end of the Han dynasty, China had roughly 130,000 bureaucrats all trained by the government to carry out the emperor’s policies. Tax collections and annual mandatory labor services ensured the central gover nment held some power over almost every person in the Middle Kingdom, something no other large government accomplished until the twentieth century. Religion and Culture. Like many civilizations, China did not produce a unitary belief system. Confucianism and Daoism were two of the major systems that competed for the loyalties of various Chinese communities during the years of the classical period. Kung Fuzi (Confucius) lived from roughly 551 to 478 B. C. E. He was not a religious leader but rather saw himself as a defender of Chinese tradition and espoused a secular system of ethics. Personal virtue, he believed, would lead to solid political institutions. Both rulers and the ruled should act with respect, humility, and self-control. Classical China also produced a more religious philosophy called Daoism, which embraced harmony in nature. According to this movement, politics, learning, and the general conditions in this world were of little importance. Over time, individuals embr aced aspects of both philosophies and also Buddhism. Chinese art then was largely decorative, stressing detail and craftsmanship. Artistic styles often reflected the geometric qualities of the symbols of Chinese writing. The practical application of science superseded learning for learning’s sake. Chinese astronomers developed accurate calendars. Scholars studied the mathematics of music. This practical focus contrasted with the more abstract approach to science applied by the Greeks. Economy and Society. As in many societies, there were large gaps between China’s upper class (about 2 percent of the population) and the peasant farmers. Officially there were three main social groups in classical China. The landowning aristocracy and the bureaucrats formed the top group. Far below them were the laboring peasants and urban artisans. At the bottom of society were the â€Å"mean people,† those who performed unskilled labor. Trade became increasingly important, particularly in the Han period. Technology is where the classical Chinese clearly excelled. Many developments of this era were centuries ahead of the rest of the world. Tight-knit family structures were similar to those in other civilizations, except that parents wielded much higher levels of authority over their children. Women were subordinate to men but had clearly defined roles in the family and in larger society. In Depth: Women in Patriarchal Societies. Agricultural societies were usually patriarchal and as they developed the status of women generally deteriorated. Marriages were arranged for women by their parents and husbands had authority over their wives and children. Later, law codes ensured basic protections but also featured limits to and inferiority of women. There were, of course, exceptions. The Egyptians had powerful queens and Jewish law traced descendence from mothers. Patriarchy responded to economic and legal conditions in agricultural civilizations and of ten deepened over time. In many societies, women held power through religious functions and had authority over daughters-in-law and unmarried daughters. How Chinese Civilization Fits Together. China’s politics and culture were, to them, two sides of the same coin, especially after the Confucian bureaucracy developed, emphasizing order and stability. Classical Chinese technology, religion, philosophy, and political structure evolved with little outside contact. Political stability aided economic growth and the government took a direct role in agricultural and economic growth. Science focused on practical applications of technology that fostered economic development. Unsurprisingly, the Chinese saw their political and social lives as a whole. There was divergence, however, such as in the differing philosophies of Confucianism, Daoism, and eventually Buddhism. Despite these and other divisions, the synthesis of Chinese life accounts for the durability of Chinese values and fo r its general invulnerability to outside influence. Classical India was just as vital a civilization but didn’t weave its institutions into society as fully and produced a more disparate outcome. Global Connections: Classical China and the World. Chinese civilization was the longest lasting in world history and one of the most creative and influential. They created the best-run bureaucracy and a whole range of technologies, and they were the source of the world’s largest trade network, the Silk Roads. Silk Road networks provided the framework for later global trading patterns. 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American and North Vietnamese Perception of War Free Essays

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Limitation of Managerial Economics Essay E conomists are a paragon of virtue, rationality and common sense amidst a sea of ignorance, superstition and irrationality. They are probably right, but, sometimes it is good to state a case in strong terms, to make people think. However, I feel there is a need to redress the balance and point out the many mistakes and limitations of Economics which are stated below. Economics is difficult John Maynard Keynes said economics is very difficult and many people underestimate how difficult it is. In Maths 2+2 always equals 4, but in economics it usually depends on countless variables almost too difficult to take into account. To give one example, the link between the Money supply and inflation. The quantity theory of money MV=PY or MONEY TIMES VELOCITY EQUALS THE PRICE LEVEL TIMES OUTPUT. This equation can be used to define a link between money growth and inflation that depends on the evolution of money. Velocity of money suggests there is a correlation between the money supply and inflation. (As most non economists would tell you if you print money you will cause inflation). But, in practise the growth of the money supply is influenced by so many variables such as technological change, velocity of circulation and consumer behaviour that M3 growth statistics became almost meaningless. MV=PY is great in theory but in practise it is difficult to make anything out of it. Forecasting the Future It is difficult to forecast the future; yet in economic policy making, it becomes important. Go back to May 2007 and how many economists were predicting a fall in UK house prices of 25% and the deepest recession since the war? I wasnt and certainly not one of the treasury economists, who were predicting stable growth of 2% and a reduction in the governments borrowing. Of course, there were people predicting a house price collapse and they have been proved right. (Though some of them started predicting a house price collapse back in 2000. ) Difficult in knowing where you are One of the great challenges is knowing the current state of the economy. For example, Chinas growth and unemployment figures are always viewed with suspicion. There is great debate about what the US inflation rate is it depends which model you use. Recently, the US GDP statistics were revised meaning that the economy was in recession much earlier than previously thought. How can you make good policy when you dont even know what happened in the past? Let alone predict the future. Using Old Models In a way, this recession is unusual in that it wasnt preceded by an inflationary boom. The government felt that as long as inflation is under control, the economy must be sustainable. However, the mistake was to ignore an asset and lending bubble. The problem is that it is not sufficient to rely on previous experiences. As the economy develops old models become less relevant as they stick to old traditions and data which is useless. Ideology A good economist would be free from ideology and have a willingness to revise theory in light of empirical evidence that doesnt match up to their beliefs or expectations. However, in practise many dislike evidence which doesnt agree with their point of view. For example, some economists place great faith in the virtues of the free market and therefore take a lazy attitude in assuming free markets will always lead to increase economic welfare. The problem is that free markets can often be beneficial. But, at the same time, there will always be exceptions; you cant make generalisations that free markets are always best nor can you make generalisations that free markets are always wrong. Another example of ideological economics could be the assumption that if privatisation works in one country it must be good for other countries too. Free trade is another example. Most economists will tell you free trade is beneficial. But, this doesnt necessarily mean developing countries should always stick to the free trade mantra. There can be exceptions to every rules, for example the infant industry argument.